Adult Leopard Tortoise in the Wild

General Guidelines

There are a variety of viral diseases that are unique to the different tortoise genera, many of which have not been isolated and classified.  To avoid introducing a novel pathogen into a species, with potentially devastating consequences, species from different continents should not be mixed in the same enclosure, and preferably not in adjacent enclosures or sharing the same tools.

Large tortoises can easily crush smaller tortoises or bite off extremities.  For this reason, tortoises should be segregated so that similar sized animals live in the same enclosures.

The social nature of tortoises varies by species.  Some,  such as African spurred tortoises (Geochelone sulcata) are quite irascible around other tortoises except for a mate.  Others, such as South American redfoot tortoises (Geochelone carbonaria) will typically live in herds of 3 to more than a dozen specimens without problem.  However, there are always some individuals that may be intolerant of other tortoises and combat them unmercifully.  There is always a danger that a tortoise may flip another tortoise, a potentially fatal maneuver if the flipped tortoise is in the sun and cannot right itself before overheating.  Some tortoises are best kept solitary except during mating season—male bowsprit tortoises (Chersina angulata) tend to need this management practice.

Space is important for healthy tortoises.  Their perceived functional space may be increased by placing visual barriers so the tortoises cannot see completely across the enclosure in any one direction.  This allows tortoises to hide from each other as they desire.  If tortoises are overcrowding, this leads to increased incidence of infectious diseases and poor reproduction.

Water needs to be available constantly for the species discussed below.  Some, such as the forest dwelling species, regularly soak for hours at a time in mud pools or freshwater and dehydrate quickly if not allowed to drink their fill daily.  The water needs to be potable as some tortoises will not drink water that has been soiled.  Access to sunlight is essential for proper metabolism.  Even if the tortoise can only be brought out seasonally, this exposure to natural unfiltered sunlight seems to energize tortoises far better than basking under artificial sources of ultraviolet B radiation.  Beware though—tortoises can quickly overheat in the noonday sun if they can’t access deep shade on demand.

African Spurred Tortoise, Geochelone sulcata

See our webpage, Sulcata Tortoise Care

Leopard Tortoise, Geochelone pardalis

There are two different subspecies of leopard tortoises, pardalis pardalis and pardalis babcocki, but their husbandry in captivity is very similar.  This large tortoise ranges throughout sub-Saharan Africa in grassland, scrub and dry woodland habitats, this is yellow to beige colored tortoise is dappled with black spots.  It reaches weights of 50 pounds or more and shows some sexual dimorphism in size.  Females are usually much heavier and larger than males.  Truly gigantic leopard tortoises weighing over 160 pounds have been found although these giants are now rare, if indeed any exist anymore.

Leopard tortoises need a lot of space, at least 50 sq ft of floor space per adult female.  Adult males sometimes live compatibly with each other and sometimes fight. The background temperature of the enclosure should have a day-night fluctuation of around 15°F, with a daytime high upwards of 95°F and a nighttime low of 80°F or lower.  At all times, there should be a cool/hot zone of 85°F for the tortoise to retreat to if it is too warm or too cold.  Nighttime temperatures below 60°F are risky.  Leopard tortoises are often kept outside with only a shelter against wind in rain in the Phoenix area as long as the temperature stays in the mid-50s or above.   High humidity, above 75% RH, predisposes this species to respiratory disease and skin and shell lesions.

If leopard tortoises are not regularly exposed to strong sunlight, their shells do not develop large black spots and are unnaturally pale.  Sometimes this causes them to be sold at a high price as either a leucistic, banana, or butter leopards to the naïve buyer.

Redfoot Tortoise, Geochelone carbonaria

This shows the colorful spots on a redfoot tortoise's legs.  The spots may range from yellow to coral red.

The redfoot tortoise is a savanna-dwelling species but it is often erroneously described as a rainforest species simple because it lives in South America.  These grasslands are typical moist with a higher humidity at ground level than the air about 2 feet above ground.  Some redfoots exploit the edge habitat around a forest but rarely venture into deep forest.  Grassland vary in temperature quite a bit, with highs that may exceed 100°F and night times lows than may drop below 70°F.  The sun is quite bright on the open grassland.

 
Redfoots can be found from moist to dry savannahs and dry forests.

Redfoots occur across a wide area in South America.  North of the Amazon River, they are found in Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, Guayana, Surinam, French Guiana.  South of the Amazon River, they range through Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay.  There is tremendous geographic variation that may well turn out to include unrecognized species.  There are specimens from Bolivia that have shell lengths of 14 inches or more compared to the more normal lengths of 8-11 inches in other parts of the range.  Colombian specimens may have solid yellow scales without a trace of orange or red while specimens attributed to Brazil and Bolivia may have scarlet to coral red scales (a variant called “cherry head” in the pet trade).

A baby "cherryhead" redfoot tortoise.

Redfoots need at least 16 sq ft of floor space per adult specimen.  The background temperature of the enclosure should stay around 80°F with a warmer end that reaches at least 88°F.  Although they tolerate nighttime temperatures dropping below 75°F, they can only do so if they are able to bask and achieve high body temperatures during the day.  Increased susceptibility to infection occurs if regularly exposed to temperatures below 70°F.  Death can occur if the tortoise is exposed to temperatures above 95°F.  The humidity needs to be relatively high, typically at least 65% RH and preferably with fluctuations above 85% RH on a regular basis.  Low humidity, below 50% RH, can result in dry and cracked skin and dehydration and seems to be an underlying cause of shell pyramiding.  Redfoots can be kept outdoors in the Phoenix area if they are provided with a lush lawn and dense shade bushes such as hibiscus and orange trees to hide from the heat and sun.  Daily sprinkling with water for fifteen minutes or more is recommended.

Redfoots are typically docile and rarely fight among themselves.  They often quickly bond with their human caregivers, seeking out handheld food treats or petting, and are quite curious about activity they can see.  We believe that many redfoots engage in play, behaviors that fit the classical definition of this word for animal behaviorists.  Redfoots also develop deep bonds with a cagemate and may go off food if their companion is taken away.

Yellowfoot Tortoise, Geochelone denticulata

Adult yellowfoot tortoises are often shy long after importation.

The yellowfoot tortoise is a rainforest dweller, living within that stable environment with minimal fluctuations of humidity or temperature.  The light that filters through the tree canopy is much dimmer than that found outside the forest on the grasslands.  The yellowfoot occupies a smaller range than the redfoot being found in Ecuador, Peru, Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Surinam, French Guiana, Bolivia, Brazil.  Due to the difference in preferred microclimates, it is rare to find yellowfoots and redfoots sharing the same habitat.  The yellowfoot also shows significant geographic variation.  Typical specimens are 12-16 inches long and weight upwards of 25 pounds.  Specimens from Peru often reach weights in excess of 60 pounds and some truly giant specimens over 100 pounds are known.  These are sometimes known as Amazon Basin yellowfoots in the pet trade.

 
Adult yellowfoots are less colorful than hatchlings.

Yellowfoots need space, typically at least 32 sq ft of floor space per adult specimen.  The background temperature of the enclosure should stay around 82°F with a warmer end that reaches at least 88°F.  Night-time temperatures below 80°F are risky even though yellowfoots often seem more reluctant to seek a heated shelter than the redfoots.  I have wondered if this reflects the yellowfoot not having to undertake the behaviors for thermoregulation that are necessary for redfoots to survive on a savanna. Increased susceptibility to infection occurs if regularly exposed to temperatures below 80°F.  Death can occur if the tortoise is exposed to temperatures above 95°F.  The humidity needs to be relatively high, typically at least 65% RH and preferably with fluctuations above 85% RH on a regular basis.  Low humidity, below 50% RH, can result in dry and cracked skin and dehydration.  Yellowfoots can be kept outdoors in the Phoenix area if they are provided with a lush lawn and dense shade bushes such as hibiscus and orange trees to hide from the heat and sun.  Daily sprinkling with water for fifteen minutes or more is recommended.

A yellowfoot tortoise hatching from an outdoor nest in Mesa, Arizona.

Yellowfoot males and some dominant females are quite aggressive and will continuously ram other tortoise with their shells.  Even if the other tortoise is retreating, the aggressive tortoise may continue to ram, only ceasing when the victim has been flipped or has run far enough away to be out of the aggressor’s trigger zone.

Indian Star Tortoise, Geochelone elegans

Indian star tortoises are found in tropical deciduous forests and dry savannas subject to monsoons throughout India and Sri Lanka.  These tortoises undergo seasonal periods of inactivity during hot dry months and some specimens may go off feed in captivity for extended periods.  As long as they appear healthy and the weight is stable, the best thing to do is allow them to have this seasonal rest.  Sometimes they may be triggered out of this rest by cooler temperatures or thunderstorms.

Indian star tortoises have black shells with yellow lines radiating from the center of each scute.  They are a relatively small tortoise, typically reaching weights of 8-10 pounds at most.  Males are typically smaller than females.

Indian star tortoises may be managed with about 16 sq ft of floor space per adult. The background temperature of the enclosure should have a day-night fluctuation of around 20°F, with a daytime high upwards of 95°F and a nighttime low of 75°F or lower.  At all times, there should be a cool/hot zone of 85°F for the tortoise to retreat to if it is too warm or too cold.  Nighttime temperatures below 70°F are not recommended.  Moderate humidity, 50-75% RH, is desirable.

Asian Brown or Black Tortoise, Manouria emys\

Young Burmese brown tortoise eating a hibiscus flower.

There are two subspecies of this tortoise, emys emys and emys phayeri. Both the Asian brown and the Asian black tortoises have similar care requirements.  These tortoises occur in tropical evergreen forests subject to monsoons throughout Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia, Sumatra, Borneo, Indo-Australian archipelago.  These tortoises grow fairly large with adult females weighing over 35 pounds very common.  These tortoises have a unique nesting strategy.  The female builds a huge nest mound, sometimes over 6 feet in diameter and 2 feet high, and defends this nest mound against predators.  She may lay over 50 eggs in a clutch.

Asian brown or black tortoises require lots of space.  An adult pair requires at least 100 sq ft of floor space.  Females can be very intolerant of other species during mating and nesting season.

The background temperature of the enclosure should have a day-night fluctuation of around 20°F, with a daytime high upwards of 90°F and a nighttime low of 75°F or lower.  At all times, there should be a cool/hot zone of 85°F for the tortoise to retreat to if it is too warm or too cold.  Nighttime temperatures below 70°F are not recommended.  Moderate humidity, 50-75% RH, is desirable.

These tortoises can be extremely shy at first but many rapidly become bonded with their human caregivers.

Feeding Tortoises

Different kinds of tortoises have different nutritional requirements.  Tortoises from dry grasslands and deserts, like the leopard tortoise, Indian star tortoises and the African spurred tortoise  need a diet that provides wear and tear on their beaks similar to the grinding action they get from the silicates in grass.  These tortoises tend to have problems with fruit—the amount of sugar in fruit can cause their gut to ferment too rapidly.  Forest herbivores, like the redfoot, yellowfoot, Asian brown and Asian black tortoises, tend to eat softer leaves and fruits, plant matter with a higher water and sugar content than grass.  A few tortoises, such as the African hingeback tortoises (Kinixys sp.) are omnivores and need animal matter in their diet.

Luckily, in Arizona most tortoise owners are able to give their pets access to a grass lawn.  Bermuda grass, rye grass, and various native plants (often called “weeds”) are great sources of natural nutrients including trace minerals and vitamins.  However, most tortoises need food beyond what they can graze from their yard in order to stay healthy.

A good tortoise diet relies heavily on dietary greens to provide fiber and some protein.  Romaine and the dark leaf lettuces are a good base, coupled with fresh grass, browse and hay.  These items are deficient in some of the vitamins, minerals and essential amino acids which must be provided by the rest of the diet.

Some plants are good sources of protein for tortoises: Romaine, spinach, alfalfa sprouts, clover, dandelion, bean sprouts, mushrooms, bamboo shoots, soybean meal, for example.  Plant protein lacks the lack essential amino acids lysine, methionine, cystine, tryptophan, threonine and may not sustain a tortoise’s protein balance.  Some animal protein appears to be necessary in the tortoise diet to provide these amino acids.  Unfortunately, animal protein sources typically have too much fat and phosphorus to be fed to tortoises, and have far more of the essential amino acids than necessary.  About 1 tablespoon of canned dogfood per month per tortoise provides sufficient animal protein for even a quite large tortoise.  Many tortoises that graze in outdoor enclosures get enough animal protein from incidentally eating insects or snails along with their grass.

Plants often contain compounds that alter nutrient absorption.  Prickly pear cactus pads (Opuntia) are often listed as an excellent source of calcium due to their dry matter content.  However, this calcium is in the form of an oxalate salt and is not well absorbed from the gut.  Other oxalate containing vegetables include spinach, rhubard, cabbage, peas, and potatoes, which should be fed sparingly.   Produce should be rinsed with water to remove any residual pesticides and herbicides.

Considerations on Diet Delivery

The perfect diet means nothing unless it is consumed by the tortoise.  Common mistakes abound that make this statement worth emphasizing.  Can the tortoises access the food?  Many tortoises are unable to feed from deep bowls.  Tortoises can develop sand impactions of the gut if the food is consumed off a sandy surface.  Are there enough feeding sites for a shy tortoise to eat without being disturbed by more aggressive cagemates?  Some tortoises tend to eat only after they have seen other tortoises start to eat, so sometimes you need fewer feeding site for this social facilitation of eating.

Water often gets overlooked as a nutrient.  Clean potable water must be provided at all times.  Small tortoises can quickly dehydrate without access to drinking water and under low humidity conditions.  Many tortoises like to immerse themselves in water so the water pans need to be large enough to accommodate the largest specimen in the enclosure.  Mud wallows are another way for tortoises to keep cool and hydrated.  Although excessive intake of soil, particularly sandy soils, may cause problems, occasional drinking from mud puddles may be an extra source of minerals in the diet.

Basic Diet for Redfoots, Yellowfoots, Asian Brown and Black Tortoises

8 cups chopped romaine
1 cup diced apple
1 cup mushrooms
1000 mg calcium lactate or calcium carbonate
1/2 of human vitamin such as Centrum™, crushed
Ad libitum fresh grass and fresh browse such as hibiscus flowers and leaves and mulberry leaves.(This means they can eat as much as they want all the time.)

Basic Diet for Leopard, African Spurred, and Indian Star Tortoises

8 cups chopped romaine
2 cups raw beans (lima beans, pinto beans, garbanzo beans, or mung beans)
1 cup fresh diced strawberries
1250 mg calcium lactate or calcium carbonate
1/10 of human vitamin, crushed
Ad libitum grass and fresh browse (This means they can eat as much as they want all the time.)

The recipes for these diets are meant as a guideline only.  Other produce can be fed in addition to the kinds listed, but care should be taken to balance the diet.  Baby tortoises can eat similar diets to adults but need to have the food chopped into smaller pieces.  Avoid giving hard vegetables like carrots or sweet potatoes to baby tortoises unless they have been shredded.  Small chunks of chopped hard vegetables have cause intestinal impactions in young tortoises.

Copyright 2008
Kevin Wright and Jay Johnson
Arizona Exotic Animal Hospital, LLC
744 N Center Street
Mesa, AZ 85203
info@azeah.com